what is philosophy essay examples

Introduction to Philosophy

Gaura Rader

Sample Essays

Here is a good example a what an “A” paper should look like. The paper’s strengths are its focus, clarity, and organization. This paper could have been a bit more ambitious as it doesn’t do much more than explain the difference between act and rule utilitarianism and Smart’s argument against rule utilitarianism. But what it does it does really well and this is sufficient at this level for an A, as these are the basic skills that you are supposed to be developing at this level. What it does do, beyond merely summarizing Smart, is offer a supporting example and considering a possible objection, which together make the paper an A paper. If it didn’t do those things it would only be a high B paper. One very nice thing about this paper is how well everything is referenced.

A Defense of Smart’s Critique of Rule Utilitarianism

I intend to argue that J.J.C. Smart’s criticism of rule utilitarianism is correct because, as he argues, there are clearly some cases where it is optimific to break a generally optimific rule. I will show this by first explaining rule utilitarianism. Then, I will explain J.J.C. Smart’s critique of rule utilitarianism, including the hypothetical example of “the dying promise,” and provide explanations as to why his criticisms are correct. Finally, I will provide another hypothetical example, one that Smart did not use, in support of Smart’s argument.

I will begin by explaining rule utilitarianism and how it differs from act utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism is the process by which one judges the morality of a given action based on the net positive utility gained by that particular action’s consequences. This is a troubling ethical theory due in part to the daunting nature of attempting to ascertain all the consequences of any given action, something which can not realistically be done. Because of this, the act utilitarian must make estimations to the best of his/her ability, never truly knowing how far off he/she is from having acted on the most optimific choice. As an answer to this problem, a related theory called rule utilitarianism was put forth. Rule utilitarianism is the process by which one judges the morality of a given action based on whether or not it follows a generally optimific rule. In “The Fundamentals Of Ethics,” Russ Shafer-Landau describes rule consequentialism as “the view that an action is morally right just because it is required by an optimific social rule. An optimific social rule is a rule that meets the following condition: if (nearly) everyone in a society where to accept it, then the results would be optimific.” (Shafer-Landau, Page 149). In rule utilitarianism, moral agents are obligated to follow these generally optimific rules.

I will now explain J.J.C. Smart’s objection to rule utilitariansim. Smart believes that generally optimific rules are useful “rules of thumb” for act utilitarians, as they will often allow us to act in optimific ways when there is not time available to carefully weigh out the consequences of a particular action (Smart,94). Smart believes that rule utilitarianism simply takes these common sense guidelines too far, and that doing so can have disastrous results (Shafer-Landau, The Ethical Life , 96). Smart provides an example of a hypothetic rule entitled “R” (Smart, 96). 99% of the time, following R will produce optimific results, while 1% of the time it will not; Rule utilitarianism states that all moral agents are required to follow R, even if they know with complete certainty that doing so will not produce optimific results (Smart, 96). Smart said of such a scenario that it would be “monstrous to suppose that if we have worked out the consequences and if we have perfect faith in the impartiality of our calculations, and if we know that in this instance to break R will have better results than to keep it, we should nevertheless obey the rule” (Smart, 96). As Smart suggested, it is completely irrational to believe in an ethical theory meant to promote overall net happiness, and then to choose to follow through on an action that you know will decrease said happiness, simply for the sake of following a rule that will usually promote happiness. It is a clear sign of a flawed ethical theory when following its guidelines of morality actually contradicts its intended results.

Smart provides another hypothetical example commonly referred to as “the dying promise.” I will now present Smart’s dying promise example from my perspective. Imagine that I am on a desert island, and the only other person on this island is my dying friend, to whom I promise that, should he die, I will donate his entire fortune (which I control) to a jockey club if I am rescued (Smart, 98). When I am rescued, though, I decide that more good can be done by giving his fortune to a hospital instead of to a jockey club (Smart, 98). The idea of giving this money to a hospital, though it will most likely produce the greatest amount of net happiness over unhappiness, will most likely conflict with one or more generally optimific rules. For example, there could be a generally optimific rule that it is never morally permissible to tell a lie; or that it is never morally permissible to deny a dying man his last request, so long as no one will be harmed in following through with it; or that it is never morally permissible to spend the wealth of others in a way that contrasts with their wishes. All of these potentially generally optimific rules would prevent a rule utilitarian from donating the money to the hospital. They would be morally obligated to donate it to the jockey club, despite the fact that this would certainly be the less optimific of the two options. Once again, rule utilitarianism is proven to be flawed, as its generally optimific rules prevent moral agents from acting to produce the intended consequences of the theory itself, maximum utility.

Another example that supports Smart’s argument against rule utilitarianism, but that he did not use himself, is the hypothetical situation known as “the inquiring murderer.” This hypothetical is often used to discredit Kantian ethics and other ethical systems that employ absolute moral laws. I will present this example from my perspective. Imagine that a murderer knocks on my door and asks if I know the location of a man that he is bent on murdering; further imagine that I do know the location of the intended victim and that I must decide whether to lie in order to save the life of an innocent man or tell the truth and aid in an innocent man being murdered (Shafer-Landau, 166). One could easily imagine that a rule which stated that it is never morally permissible to tell a lie would be generally optimific; or an even more extreme rule which stated that it is never morally permissible to withhold the truth, which would also be optimific in a majority of cases. In the case of the inquiring murderer, however, such rules would oblige the rule utilitarian to divulge the location of the murderer’s intended victim, aiding in his demise.

I will now point out a reasonable argument against my use of the inquiring murderer and will go on to prove the validity of the example. There is certainly an argument against this example in that a generally optimific rule which stated the following could exist: It is never morally permissible to aid in the murder of an innocent man. If such a rule did exist, it would lead to a conflict of two rules, in which case the rule utilitarian would be expected to judge his action based solely on its consequences. While it is true that this specific example can be accounted for within the guidelines of rule utilitarianism, we can not assume that a rule will be in place to conflict with every rule that ends up requiring a moral agent to act in a way which produces less than optimific results. It is likely that a majority of moral rules, if thought through to conclusion, would end up having exceptions that would require a conflicting rule to be made. Additionally, every instance that presents a conflict of two moral rules and requires the rule utilitarian to essentially be an act utilitarian further discredits rule utilitarianism. These instances discredit rule utilitarianism because its entire purpose is to not have to judge each action on its own consequences, and so each instance in which a rule utilitarian must act as an act utilitarian discredits rule utilitarianism.

I have argued that J.J.C. Smart’s criticisms of rule utilitarianism are correct. There are certainly many cases where, as Smart argues, it is optimific to not follow a generally optimific rule. This simple truth makes rule utilitarianism self-defeating as its guidelines do not consistently produce, and will sometimes even specifically hinder, its intended results.

Works Cited

Shafer-Landau, Russ. The Fundamentals of Ethics . 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print

Smart, J.J.C., “Extreme and Restricted Utilitarianism” The Ethical Life . 2nd ed. Ed. Russ Shaffer-Landau. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2012.

What Is the Philosophy? Essay

Philosophy is a subject that focuses on the important nature of existence, of human beings, and human’s relationship to their surroundings. For instance, when it comes to cognition one can say that trees are the important components that make a forest while in philosophy one will say that the soil is the vital component that makes up the forest because if it wasn’t for the soil the trees won’t be there. Philosophy is a broad system of ideas concerning human nature and the kind of real human beings live in. It can be compared with a guide for living because the issues it tackles are essential and pervasive in determining how we associate and treat other people and the path human beings take in life, (p, 6).

There are several topics that philosophy addresses and they fall under different fields. Some of the vital concerns are Epistemology which is the theory of knowledge, Ethics; (the theory of moral values), Aesthetics (the theory of the nature of art), Metaphysics (the theory of reality), and finally Politics (the theory of legal rights and government). Religions such as Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism contribute so much in offering guidance in the philosophical field.

The difference between religions and philosophy is mainly not in the subject they both address but the different methods they use to address the subject. Religions have their foundation in mythic tales that pass the discovery of explicitly coherent methods of analysis. Numerous religions or faith organizations these days call to a spiritual faith and revelation modes of belief which claim validity independence to logic and the scientific ways, at least for the prime questions. But many religions are in their basis not anti-rational but pre-rational, for example, a storyteller’s relay of philosophic matters rather than a scientist’s, (p, 25).

Philosophy means “The Love of wisdom” in Greek. Philosophy is found in rational debates and appeals mostly to actuality. It should be noted that the account of our scientific discoveries started either with philosophical studies or inquiries, and the systematic ways of testing and proof up to now remains a case of the common approach that truth-seekers try to bring to question; one which is exact and rational. Though, as so far the researchers in sciences center on expert inquiries in particular fields, while on the other hand, the subjects addressed by philosophy persist to be the most general, these are issues that inspire the field of sciences and are situated at the base of a world-view, (p, 56).

Covering the issues in each sector of philosophy needs to integrate everything an individual knows about reality, humanity, politics, epistemology, and aesthetics. Therefore, supporting meaningful positions in philosophy can turn out to be a complicated task. Straightforward philosophers have many times disagreed about important issues, and deceitful ones have always managed to find their own places into the mix too. This is the reason why no one philosophy is used universally, as there is in physics, (p, 89).

Throughout history, philosophers have presented the entire systems that brought together positions in every branch of philosophy. The renowned father of logic Mr. Aristotle wrote such a system in early times, elaborating that “if people could know the truth then they will achieve contentment and happiness”. Authors and philosophers like Immanuel Kant and John Locke have written logical accounts of their ideas on governments and other issues in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

The current philosophic issues have often come to the public life through social or political groups, some through inspiration in religion, like conservatism in Christianity, and otherworldly areas, such as Marxism and left-wing conservationism. The notions behind such movements are known as ideologies. The word “ideology,” is a substitute name for the different classes of ideas that have been covered in this paper. While the center of ideological groups is on a political perspective, their political convictions tend to be entrenched in shared outsets of reality, values, and human nature, (p, 116).

Geoge Kuria. Philosophy compared to different fields. Milan; Mogan Press, 1996.

"The Tourist" by Dean MacCannell and the Concept of Authenticity
Randomness as a Part of Our Life
Philosophic and Religious Ideas Throughout History
Ontology and Epistemology in the Contemporary Society
Epistemology and Metaphysics in Relation to Skepticism, Rationalism, and Materialism
What Critical Thinking Is and How to Become an Accomplished Critical Thinker?
What Is the Difference Between Soul and Body According to Descartes?
Plato’s Theory of Natural Depravity
Philosophical Role of the Moral Character
A Defense of Skepticism: Discussion
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Essay Samples on Philosophy

If you are here, you might be looking for an excellent Philosophy essay sample that will help you to create an assignment that is most alike to what you find. We have a great collection of examples that deal with most schools of thought. You can find modern philosophers and their works and the books that you might have studied as a college student. The most challenging part is to understand what your grading rubric requires and find the facts that must be mentioned as a reply to the prompt. Our Philosophy essay examples will provide you with correct formatting and structure that will help you see how to fit within the word count and why you must provide citations to support your claims. If some source that you discover looks good, you can use it as a resource for your own Philosophy paper. Just remember to implement quotes only where and when necessary or you are risking overfilling your writing with too many citations. Although it may be helpful when you’re dealing with philosophy, your analysis should always come first and represent at least 50% of the total word count. Create an outline first and you will be safe!

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Professor's Pine Case: Is Breastfeeding in Public Wrong

Breastfeeding is natural, and naturally beautiful. I hate when I see how something so natural and beautiful could be portrayed as something so terrible and disgusting. It’s a healthy process for the mom and the baby. And for some women breastfeeding does not come easy,...

Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding in Public

Why is Responsibility Important in Everyday Life

What is social responsibility, why is responsibility important? Social responsibility is a duty every individual has to perform to the community. A better future is what we seek for the upcoming generation and youth and the best to bring about the expected changes is when...

Responsibility
Socialization

Pros and Cons of Human Cloning, Why it Should Never Be Legalized

Over the years, technological advancement has made human life easier and has led to ground breaking discoveries. Human cloning is one of the most controversial issues especially in the field of Biology because tampering with human life seems so wrong to many but to others,...

Human Nature in the Lost TV Show: Are Humans Inherently Good or Evil

Throughout humanity, the nature of humankind has been questioned by philosophers, leading them to conclude whether humans are inherently good or evil. Thomas Hobbes, a British philosopher that lived in the 1600s, believes that humans are born selfish and greedy, which leads to violence and...

Human Behavior

My Personal Philosophy of Nursing in Practice

In my personal philosophy of nursing, I feel that the most obvious to me are person and nursing. As a practicing nurse, I feel that it is very important to consider the person as another being just like myself that possesses feelings, personal views, and...

Ethics of Artificial Intelligence, Machine Morality

”The development of full artificial intelligence could spell the end of the human race”. These are the words of iconic astrophysicist, Stephen Hawking. “ With artificial intelligence, we are summoning the demon”.These are the words of the popular Tech Mogul, Elon Musk. These people are...

Artificial Intelligence
Human Development

Human Beliefs in "Allegory of the Cave" and "The Love Song of J. A. Prufrock"

In the fast pacing world of that of the 21st century, our reality- ranging from political biases to personal choices - seems to be influenced by external factors in order to blend into society, and we tend to feel imprisoned. Our mind filters information we...

Allegory of The Cave
The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock

Voltaire: A Famous Representative Of The Age Of Enlightenment

The philosopher I wish to discuss is Voltaire. I have chosen him because I feel his thought and philosophy have been absolutely influential to the culture in which I have grown up. Francois-Marie Arouet, also called Voltaire, is certainly the author best representing the culture,...

Enlightenment
Philosophers

What Is Enlightenment: Representatives And Ideas

The Age of Reason or Enlightenment began with the Renaissance and took place between the 1600s and 1700s. It was also closely associated with the scientific revolution. During this era, Enlightenment thinkers; an influential group that glorified the human capacity for reasoning to negate superstition...

Age of Enlightenment

What Is Enlightenment: Immanuel Kant And Voltaire

As the age of Enlightenment arose in the 18th century, many had different views on what Enlightenment was. For the most part, Enlightenment stresses the idea of rationalism. For Immanuel Kant, this meant thinking for yourself, expressing your ideas instead of others. As for Voltaire,...

Immanuel Kant

Theme Of Free Will And Determinism In "The Power Of Critical Thinking"

In The Power of Critical Thinking by Lewis Vaughn, he presents the readers with a link between critical thinking and freedom. He asserts that we must think critically to not let our values be determined by society. Freedom is obtained when we challenge and critically...

Critical Thinking
Determinism

Gregor Samsas` Burden In "The Metamorphosis" By F. Kafka

Everyone has dreamed of a crazy dream that made them go crazy as it was unbelievable, but what you will do if that dream turned out to be a reality that you are living? “The metamorphosis” is a short novella written by Franz Kafka which...

The Metamorphosis

The Nature Of Confucianism and Daoism, And The Gender Roles

The story of Cui Ying Ying was composed during the late Tang dynasty and is regarded as famous romantic prose. The story explores cultural dynamics during the Tang period and displays the contrasting views of Chinese philosophy in the era. To truly comprehend the symbolism...

Gender Roles

The Significance Of "Common Sense" By Thomas Paine

It is universally acknowledged that words weigh much more than cannons, as it has the greatest ability in changing the destiny of nations, no matter the situation. Some men couldn’t be blinded to their suffering; they had to stand for themselves and their people and...

Declaration of Independence

Thomas Paine`s "Common Sense": On The Way To Independence

The French and Indian War is also known as the Seven Years’ War, and it is vastly misleading in terms of its label. It was neither fought between the French and the Indians, nor seven years in length. This armed conflict lasted approximately nine years,...

Maintaining Trust: Importance of Telling the Truth

Have you ever wondered if lying is right or wrong? Have you ever lied and been tricked into telling the truth? Most people have been tricked by pretty much everyone. Lying according to research is always wrong. Most people feel guilty about lying and almost...

Communication

Transcendentalism And The Work Of Ralph Waldo Emerson

Transcendentalism is an idealistic philosophical and social movement that developed in New England around the 1900s due to rationalism. During the time the most important transcendentalists were Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, Lydia Maria Child, Amos Bronson Alcott, Frederic Henry Hedge, Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, Theodore...

Literature Review
Ralph Waldo Emerson

Reflections On Personal Intercultural Experience

Intercultural experience has introduced me to new ideas, revealed layers of concepts I was previously familiar with, and modified my original perceptions of particular notions. The course has allowed me to re-establish my feelings, thoughts, and opinions comprehensively, by encouraging reflection on my instinctive communicative...

Intercultural Communication

The Existence of God: Descartes' And Anselm's Proof

Ontology is the study of the first principles or essence of things. Essence is the intrinsic nature of something that shows character. This concept of essence is the foundation of the ontological argument. It provides a basis for the nature of a greater being because...

Existence of God

Benjamin Banneker Letter To Thomas Jefferson

Banneker’s use of formal tone and succinct diction delivers to Jefferson the urgency of ending slavery. He demonstrates the lack of equality and hypocrisy as Jefferson claims “all men created equal” while treating human beings as possessions that could be bought and sold; and doing...

Benjamin Banneker

Why Books Should Not Be Banned: Any Opinion Matters

For silent reading day, Daniel brought a picture book, And Tango Makes Three by Peter Parnell and Justin Richardson, and pretty bookmark his mother gave him. He started to read when all the sudden his teacher snatched it away saying that it was banned in...

Reading Books

The Realities of Social, Cultural and Literary Distinction

Pierre Bourdieu, born in August 1930, was brought up in a rural area of the south west of France. Bourdieu pursued an elite academic curriculum from Paris studying philosophy, on the recommendation of his high school teacher. On graduating from the prestigious École Normale Supérieure,...

Cultural Anthropology

Criticisms of Kantian Ethics in the Business Industry

Ethics is generally one of the most intensely debated subjects in the society as they can be found at all levels. Most commonly, people talk of ethics in a religious or personal context, topics such as euthanasia being the less evil in ill-fated circumstance or...

Business Ethics

Importance of Reflection and Learning From Past Incidents

To practice competently, reflection is important because it allows one to critically think about past or present events, evaluate situations and then use the knowledge obtained to act accordingly in future situations. All of which improves patient care and helps minimise bad practice in the...

The Practice of Art Forgery and Monet's Aesthetic Flaws

A forgery is a work that is not genuine to its proclaimed origins, however, is presented as a genuine article, and is so acting with the intention to deceive. The practice of art forgery is as well established and mature as the practice of creating...

Art History
Claude Monet

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding byJohn Locke

Psychology was derived from two other disciplines; physiology, the study of how living things work, and philosophy, the theories behind why living things behave the way they do. Philosophy and physiology are intertwined, in that they both have contributed to the study of the other....

Cognitive Psychology

Aspects of Canadian Political Reality Intersectionalities Approach

Intersectionality may be defined as a theory that shows how social and cultural categories interact. It shows that various social identities like race, gender class, disability, sexuality, place of origin and nationality are interconnected and contribute to systemic oppression and discrimination experienced by some societies....

Intersectionality

Political Systems and Regimes: The Absolutism

The absolutism is one of the types of rules used by Europeans, which was found in Europe in the Middle Ages. Royal governments weakened after religious wars between Christian sects, but returned again in the seventeenth century.The absolutism regained its power in Europe in the...

Acceptance Concepts Through the Bible Topics

I believe that God creates all of us to be good genuinely and kindhearted. God believes that we are most beautiful & unique the way he created us. So, bullies should stop their intimidating behaviors towards others, they don’t need to be so, they should...

Biblical Worldview

My Response to Arts Philanthropy

Arts and culture philanthropy is, by all means, a beneficial cause that seeks to promote the growth and development of the arts in general and particular forms of art or cultures specifically. In this way, it serves as an avenue through which the community or...

Multiculturalism
Philanthropy
Racial Segregation

First Paper: Conceptual Reconstruction (Allegory, Euthyphro, Apology)

Plato can be identified not only as a man at his prime but the, most openly looked upon and the most universally praised influential philosopher of all time. Among the three juggernauts of philosophy were his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, and himself. Plato was able to provide the strong...

Euthyphro Dilemma

Apuleius’ Metamorphoses and Picture of Human Nature

This essay will explore Apuleius’ Metamorphoses with special regard to what picture of human nature and society it presents and whether or not the gods offer the prospect of salvation. Dealing with the tale of Lucius whose overly curious nature results in him being turned...

Metamorphoses

Define the Notion Empirical Science

Empiricism and Rationalism is a reflection of the nature and nurture debate. The philosoephical notion empiricism is defined as knowledge that does not transpire due to genes. Aristotle’s views in regards to the nature versus nurture argument leans more on the nurture side. His views...

Paranormal and Supernatural: Scientific Explanation

Paranormal and Supernatural are terms generally grouped together when someone is trying to explain something that is beyond scientific explanation and the laws of nature itself. The term “Paranormal” wasn’t an official term until 1920 while the term “Supernatural” has been around since roughly 1495....

Natural Law
Paranormal Activity

Literature of African Diaspora as a Postcolonial Discourse

Literature of diaspora as a postcolonial discourse addresses issues such as home, nostalgia, formation of identity and to the interaction between people in diaspora and the host society, the center and the margin. Sufran believes that ‘diaspora’ is used as a ‘metaphoric designation’ to describe...

African Diaspora
Anthropology

August Wilson’s Fences: Triumph and Hypocrisy

In August Wilson’s “Fences” each character goes through things that will define the character in their life. The chooses they make will also affect each and every member of the family. In the Maxon family as a whole they juxtapose one another with their own...

The Absolutist Moral Principle of Pacifism

Extreme or absolutist views of pacifism advocate for the complete rejection of violence and war and perpetuate the view that under no circumstances can these be morally justified; this obviously includes cases of self-defence as well as defence of others. This form of moral thought...

Self Defence

The Ideology of Giving People Status or Reward

A meritocratic society is based on the ideology of giving people status or reward based on what they achieve rather than their wealth or social position. However, it could be argued that a meritocratic is just, and arguments that a meritocratic society is not just....

Just Society

Virtue Ethics Frameworks as Drivers of Teacher’s Systems Advocacy

In early education children's interests are not at the forefront of the ecce policy; instead, policy is aligned to providing 'childcare” to encourage economic growth and the expandsiion of the workforce and this leads to increasing national productivity. Moving on now to consider the ethical...

The Truman Show Film Analysis: Kantianism

The movie that I chose to analyze was The Truman Show. A good ethical theory that helps to better analyze the moral significance of this film is Kantianism. Throughout the film, it’s apparent that something just seems a little bit off. This utopian society that...

The Truman Show

Best topics on Philosophy

1. Where I See Myself in the Future

2. Where Do I See Myself in 5 Years

3. Abortion and Philosophy: Navigating Ethical and Moral Dimensions

4. What It Means to Be an Educated Person

5. What Is a Life Well Lived: Meaning, Fulfillment, and Impact

6. What Does Education Mean to You: Empowerment Through Knowledge

7. Thomas Paine’s “Rights of Man”: An Argumentative Analysis

8. Main Strengths and Weaknesses of Virtue Ethics

9. How Does Society Shape Our Identity

10. How Does Family Influence Your Identity

11. Exploring Existence: How Do I Know I Exist

12. A Life of Integrity: How to Live an Ethical Life

13. What Is the Meaning of Life: Exploring Philosophical, Spiritual, and Personal Perspectives

14. Using Ethos in an Essay: Crafting Persuasive and Credible Arguments

15. Death with Dignity: An Argumentative Perspective

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Philosophy - Essay Examples And Topic Ideas For Free

Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and ethics. An essay on philosophy could explore notable philosophical theories, compare different philosophical traditions, or discuss how philosophical inquiry contributes to our understanding of complex issues in science, ethics, and society. A substantial compilation of free essay instances related to Philosophy you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Philosophy in 300 B.C.

Philosophy in 300 B.C era became more focused on the art of living. This was because of the Peloponnesian war and the fall of the city of Athens by the Roman Empire, the people of Athens response to this was hopelessness. After the war Greek civilians felt a loss of purpose in their existence and their ability to control their lives socially and politically was steadily diminishing. These historically significant events is what brought up the philosophical theories of life […]

Negative Impact of Process Philosophy

Process philosophy is the topic that will discussed today. It is a prevailing view and belief that is brought up by a theoretical scholar clarifying what appears to be a specific fact that has and is currently happening in our culture and society. A smart individual will notice that it is high in concern amplifying and studying complications and difficulties behind events that happen in our society. It is imperative that understanding is amongst society to be able and acknowledge […]

Impact of Enlightenment on America

There were many amazing people that were involved in the Enlightenment and the Great Awakening. These amazing people's ideas would be the basis for the founding of the America we know. It would also inspire the American Revolution. It helped people in the America's think for themselves. The enlightenment was a cultural and scientific movement. In one mans words the enlightenment is better described as an, "Intellectual and cultural movement in the eighteenth century that emphasized reason over superstition and […]

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Philosophy: Truth is what Conforms with Fact or Reality

Truth, for many people, is simple – it is what conforms with fact or reality. Philosophy is concerned with what is true in the world, using many methods to search for the truth. Motivation for the search for truth can be pared down to wisdom and utility. Wisdom is the main goal of philosophy, as philosophy is named after wisdom, with the Greek words philo and sophia meaning love of wisdom. Utility came with wisdom, as the wisdom acquired by […]

Abortion Issue, Ethics and Philosophy

Some philosophers think that abortion should be done at beginning stages before the fetus has consciousness. As for others, they think that it’s important for moral permissible of an abortion, whether the fetus is at a stage where parts of the brain that exists supports a certain capacity of consciousness and self-consciousness. In the Politics Aristotle supports infanticide for cases in which the child is deformed, or otherwise physically compromised. I could imagine him (Aristotle) allowing for infanticide when a […]

Eudaimonia Happiness and Virtue on Aristotle

Aristotle was the ancestor of the concept of eudaimonia. The word "Eudaimonia refer to the type of life one thinks best, most worthwhile, or most desirable. It is generally referred to hedonic happiness. It is the belief that one is getting the important things one wants, as well as certain pleasant affects [1]. It is about pleasure, having fun and enjoying yourself. Aristotle argues that most people agree that living well and doing well is all about happiness [2]. Furthermore, […]

The Matrix Philosophy

How can we know that we are awake? That this is real? Surely many of us who have seen the film has these types of questions. Many of us have had the sensation of not acting with total freedom, many of us have thought that our acts are predetermined (or very influenced), or that we live an eternal constant return; even, that we are being manipulated and controlled and that we are inside a dream. Matrix responds to all these […]

Concept of St. Augustine Christianity Philosophy

St. Augustine was an important figure in history for philosophy and had many contributions throughout his career that made other important philosophers question themselves and him. We get to know St. Augustine as he tells his audience about his life and his ideas by his work while he was alive. He had written many famous books that still have an impact on today’s generation and blended philosophy and theology together. Augustine was able to accomplish many things throughout his hardships […]

Kant and Aristotle on Happiness

Human happiness has been a topic of discussion for thousands of years. The discussion focuses on how to reach true happiness, and the relevance of happiness to decision making. Over time, philosophers have mulled over human happiness, with Aristotle and Kant taking opposing stances. Aristotle believes happiness is the goal of human activity. Kant argues that the purpose of human activity is to uphold universal law without taking happiness into consideration. Acting out of respect for duty leads to a […]

Thought into what my Philosophy on Teaching

Before, I began this course I didn't put much thought into what my philosophy on teaching was. I have come to see the importance of learning about philosophical theories and the men and women who implemented them. Philosophy in general studies questions about the nature of learning, especially children. Questions might include: What is the purpose of education? What is the nature of education and its related concepts? Is the chief goal of educators imparting knowledge, developing intellectual independence or […]

PHL 130: Moral Philosophy

Abortion Given the circumstances between Dante and Beatrice, I do believe it would be morally legitimate for Beatrice to get an abortion because they both practiced safe sex in an attempt to avoid getting pregnant. Although, in my opinion, I believe that it would be morally legitimate in any circumstance for a woman to have an abortion because a woman has complete autonomy over her body, just as any person would and should. I hold this position because I believe […]

Aristotle Vs. Plato

Throughout life, one will encounter many different people some with similar views and others with contrasting perspectives on reality. This topic and discussion on life and reality continues to rise debate since ancient times. Some of history's most influential philosophers that attempt to describe life and reality are Aristotle and Plato. A student may choose to accept the teachings of a mentor or reject, question, and modify what is taught. Aristotle was a student of Plato's and chose to reject […]

Plato’s Philosophy and Christian Metaphysics

Platonism is the philosophy of Plato that was developed in 1509; and moreover refers to the philosophy the affirms the existence of abstract objects that “exist” in a “third realm” distinct form the external world and from the internal world of the consciousness. And also bringing attention to Plato’s Theory of Forms that considers the distinction between the realities that are perceptible and imperceptible. In later centuries, Platonism began to have a profound effect on Western thought and many of […]

Philosophy in Plato’s ‘Allegory of the Cave’

Philosophy is a cosmology, a crisis, and a critique. A cosmology is the assumption one makes about the universe, their worldview, what is subjective, and what is objective. A crisis is made up of the moral choices one makes, what is right or wrong, choosing between life or death, and is based judgement. Critique analyzes how one structures their argument, further expanding the problems presented. Philosophy is the love for wisdom as it is the purpose for forming critical thoughts. […]

Unveiling the Boundaries: Robert Frost’s ‘Mending Wall’ and the Philosophy Human Urge for Connection and Division

Robert Frost's poem "Mending Wall" transcends the constraints of time, delving into the intricate layers of human relationships, the dichotomy between unity and isolation, and the very essence of boundaries—both physical and metaphorical. Through vivid imagery and poignant reflections, Frost crafts a narrative that resonates with the perennial tug-of-war between connectivity and separation. The poem unfolds against the backdrop of two neighbors who convene annually to repair a stone wall that divides their properties. Frost's evocative language captures the essence […]

Personal Philosophy in Teaching

A personal philosophy in teaching is a crucial framework that guides educators in their approach to instruction, student engagement, and educational goals. This philosophy shapes how teachers perceive their role, interact with students, and implement teaching strategies. In this essay, I explore the components of my personal philosophy in teaching, emphasizing its impact on my approach to education and student development. At the core of my teaching philosophy is the belief that education should be student-centered. This means recognizing and […]

Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics

There is perhaps no pursuit more quintessential to human existence than that of happiness and a meaningful life. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle examines the many facets of life that bring virtue and contentment. He queries what it means to be good, just, and ethical. These questions are as relevant now as they were then. Seeking one's purpose in life will always be a key element of human nature. Aristotle begins his musings by explaining that happiness is the motivation for […]

Philosophy in Action: Embracing Mottos to Live by

Life mottos, succinct phrases that encapsulate guiding principles or philosophies, have long been sources of inspiration and guidance for many. These mottos, often born out of personal experiences, cultural wisdom, or historical insight, serve as beacons to light our path through the complexities of life. This essay delves into the significance of living by mottos, exploring how these simple yet profound phrases can shape our perspectives, decisions, and actions. A motto, by definition, is a short statement that encapsulates a […]

Philosophy on Stage: Interpreting Existential Themes in Sartre’s ‘No Exit’ Play

Jean-Paul Sartre's "No Exit," first produced in 1944 and originally named "Huis Clos" in French, is considered a classic in existentialist literature and contemporary theater. The intricate domains of human freedom, responsibility, and the existential torment of self-realization are explored in this one-act drama. Set in a strange, windowless afterlife chamber, "No Exit" is a psychological and philosophical examination of human connections and the endless struggle for self-identity. This article looks at the thematic complexity of "No Exit," the character […]

Philosophy Embracing Conflict: Exploring the why Behind our Fights

Why do we fight? It's a question that echoes through history, reverberating across battlefields, negotiations, and personal struggles. The reasons behind our conflicts are as varied as the human experience itself, spanning from the grand stages of global politics to the intimate spaces of our individual lives. At its core, the impulse to fight often emerges from a clash of interests, beliefs, or values. Whether on a global scale where nations contend for power or in our personal relationships where […]

Harmonizing Hearts: the Philosophy Timeless Influence of Hare Krishna Consciousness

The Hare Krishna movement, officially known as the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), epitomizes a spiritual odyssey that has transcended boundaries, resonating across cultures and generations. Rooted in the profound wisdom of ancient Vedic scriptures, ISKCON is a vibrant tapestry woven with threads of devotion, service, and enlightenment. At its nucleus lies the resounding chant: “Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare / Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare.” This melodic mantra is more than a […]

Main Ideas of the Enlightenment Thinkers

The Enlightenment is a point in history where philosophers became a huge part of society. They were putting their ideas out there of how they wanted the world to be a better place. Some said the government could be better and others said that the people need to own up to their mistakes. The Enlightenment thinkers were trying to create a future that was way different from their present. Immanuel Kant says that the motto for the Enlightenment was "Have […]

Embracing Imperfections: the Philosophy of being a “Born Sinner”

At a recent late-night gathering in the dorm lounge, amidst the mellow strumming of a guitar and the soft hum of conversation, a fellow student raised a contemplative question: "Aren't we all just born sinners?" The term "born sinner" led to a profound discussion on human nature, morality, and the inner battles each of us face. It's a concept that has long intrigued theologians, philosophers, and even pop culture enthusiasts, and I found myself pondering its implications and resonances in […]

Blue Devil Basketball Offensive Philosophy

The Blue Devil Offensive Philosophy is that our best offense is our defense. Players will use strong defense to create primary break opportunities. The EHS basketball program places great importance upon getting the ball into the front court with great urgency. By pushing the ball up the court, we force the defense into numerical disadvantages which can create easy scoring opportunities for our athletes. The emphasis is placed on getting the ball in the paint in order to create scoring […]

The Differences between the Principles of Plato Aristotle

Plato and Aristotle are without a doubt two of the world's greatest philosophers. Plato, a Greek philosopher and a student of Socrates, was born around 424-423 BC in Athens to a wealthy Athenian family and his death was around 347-348 BC. Following in the footsteps of Socrates, Plato wrote his works as dialogues. His notable works include Apology, Symposium and Republic. His notable ideas were Idealist in nature, in that he believed in order and harmony, goodness and selflessness, everlasting […]

Impact of the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment

During the Renaissance Age from the 1300s until the early 1500s, science was utilized to help people reach a better understanding of God and not of their surrounding world. Science was viewed as a branch of religion and scientific thought was based on faith. As scientists and philosophers began to reject these faith based beliefs, critical thinking began challenging the traditional thoughts and ideals about the world and its workings. By the 16th and 17th centuries, political, philosophical, and scientific […]

The Effect of the Enlightenment on the World Today

How could, a simple thing like tea, or stamps lead to a Revolution? The American Revolution was a political rebellion in which the American colonists overthrew their Britain, their Motherland due to a series of violations to their rights. The revolution took place all across America, from 1775 to 1783. The two sides of the revolution were the British and the American colonists, who were often known as the Patriots. The American Revolution was sparked by the Stamp and Sugar […]

What should you Know about Enlightenment

Enlightenment is more formally defined as a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition. It was heavily influenced by 17th-century philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Newton, and its prominent exponents included Kant, Goethe, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith (Dictionary.com). The Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, was a union of ideas and activities that took place throughout Western Europe, England, and even the American colonies during the eighteen hundred. […]

The Enlightenment Era in Europe

The Enlightenment Era consisted of an intellectual and philosophical movement that carried throughout Europe. This was often considered an intellectual revolution where "thinkers who were involved in working with the laws of nature in order to make each of the societies as great as possible. Some great thinkers during this era include: Olympe de Gouges who discussed the rights of man and citizen, John Locke who discussed about the natural rights of humans and Montesquieu who discussed the idea of […]

A Persona of Mary Wollstonecraft

During the Enlightenment period, women had minimal rights. As society was rapidly changing and debating what rights men should have, women were often left out of this question. However, during this time period, some women decided to stand up for their rights, and one woman who did that was named Mary Wollstonecraft. Mary Wollstonecraft used Enlightenment values such as rationalism and advancing society in order to advocate for equal education for men and women. She believed that by educating men […]

How To Write an Essay About Philosophy

Introduction to philosophical writing.

Writing an essay about philosophy is not just about presenting historical facts or philosophical theories; it's about engaging with complex ideas, analyzing arguments, and developing your own reasoned viewpoints. Start your essay by clearly defining the philosophical issue or problem you intend to address. Whether you're discussing a specific philosopher's theory, a branch of philosophical thought, or a timeless ethical dilemma, it's crucial to set the stage with a clear, concise introduction. This should include a thesis statement that outlines your main argument or the perspective you will be exploring in your essay. Philosophy demands clarity of thought and expression, so your introduction should reflect these qualities.

Delving into Philosophical Arguments

The body of your essay should delve into the philosophical arguments surrounding your chosen topic. Begin by presenting the key ideas, theories, or arguments that have been put forward by philosophers in the past. This requires thorough research and a deep understanding of the philosophical concepts involved. When discussing these ideas, it's important to do so accurately and fairly, presenting each argument in its strongest form. Then, critically analyze these arguments, identifying their strengths and weaknesses. This analysis should not merely be a summary of different viewpoints but should engage with the ideas, questioning their validity and exploring their implications.

Developing Your Own Philosophical Perspective

An essential part of a philosophy essay is developing and presenting your own perspective on the issue. After analyzing existing arguments, offer your own reasoned viewpoint. This could involve arguing for one of the positions you've discussed, synthesizing elements from different arguments into a new position, or presenting an entirely new argument of your own. Support your perspective with logical reasoning, drawing on philosophical concepts and theories where appropriate. Remember, in philosophy, the strength of your argument is more important than the conclusion you reach. Your goal is to demonstrate critical thinking, logical reasoning, and depth of understanding.

Concluding Your Philosophical Exploration

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your analysis and reiterating the significance of your argument. Reflect on the broader implications of your findings for the philosophical issue you've explored. A good conclusion will not only bring closure to your essay but also leave the reader with something to ponder. Perhaps pose a question that encourages further thought or suggests areas for future exploration. In philosophy, conclusions are often not definitive; instead, they offer a springboard for ongoing discussion and reflection. A well-crafted conclusion will underscore the importance of philosophical inquiry and the value of continuing to question and explore complex ideas.

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1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology

Philosophy, One Thousand Words at a Time

What is Philosophy?

Author: Thomas Metcalf Category: Metaphilosophy Word count: 1000

Listen here , video below

If you’ve ever wondered whether God exists, whether life has purpose, whether beauty is in the eye of the beholder, what makes actions right or wrong, or whether a law is fair or just, then you’ve thought about philosophy. And these are just a few philosophical topics.

But what is philosophy? The question is itself a philosophical question. This essay surveys some answers.

1. Defining Philosophy

The most general definition of philosophy is that it is the pursuit of wisdom, truth, and knowledge. [1] Indeed, the word itself means ‘love of wisdom’ in Greek.

Whenever people think about deep, fundamental questions concerning the nature of the universe and ourselves, the limits of human knowledge, their values and the meaning of life, they are thinking about philosophy. Philosophical thinking is found in all parts of the world, present, and past. [2]

In the academic world, philosophy distinguishes a certain area of study from all other areas, such as the sciences and other humanities. Philosophers typically consider questions that are, in some sense, broader and/or more fundamental than other inquirers’ questions: [3] e.g., physicists ask what caused some event; philosophers ask whether causation even exists ; historians study figures who fought for justice; philosophers ask what justice is or whether their causes were in fact just; economists study the allocation of capital; philosophers debate the ethical merits of capital ism .

When a topic becomes amenable to rigorous, empirical study, it tends to be “outsourced” to its own field, and not described in the present day as “philosophy” anymore: e.g., the natural sciences were once called “natural philosophy,” but we don’t now just think about whether matter is composed of atoms or infinitely divisible: we use scientific experiments. [4] And most of the different doctoral degrees are called “Doctor of Philosophy” even when they’re in sociology or chemistry.

Philosophical questions can’t be straightforwardly investigated through purely empirical means: [5] e.g., try to imagine a lab experiment testing whether societies should privilege equality over freedom—not whether people believe we should, but whether we actually should . What does moral importance look like in a microscope?

The main method of academic philosophy is to construct and evaluate arguments (i.e., reasons intended to justify some conclusion). Such conclusions might be that some theory is true or false or might be about the correct analysis or definition of some concept. These arguments generally have at least some conceptual, intellectual, or a priori , i.e., non-empirical, content. And philosophers often incorporate relevant scientific knowledge as premises in arguments. [6]

2. Branches of Philosophy

Philosophy deals with fundamental questions. But which questions, specifically, is philosophy about? Here’s a standard categorization: [7]

Logic : Logicians study good and bad arguments and reasoning, and they study formal, symbolic languages intended to express propositions, sentences, or arguments. [8]

Metaphysics : Metaphysicians study what sorts of entities exist, what the world and its constituents are made of, and how objects or events might cause or explain each other. [9]

Epistemology : Epistemologists study knowledge, evidence, and justified belief. An epistemologist might study whether we can trust our senses and whether science is trustworthy. [10]

Values : In value theory, philosophers study morality, politics, and art, among other topics. For example: What makes wrong actions wrong? How do we identify good people and good lives? What makes a society just or unjust? [11]

There are many sub-branches within these fields. Many other fields— the sciences, art, literature, and religion—have a “philosophy of” attached to them: e.g., philosophers of science might help interpret quantum mechanics; philosophers of religion often consider arguments about the existence of God. [12]

There are also unique and important philosophical discussions about certain populations or communities, such as feminist philosophy and Africana philosophy. [13] People from all cultures contribute to philosophy, more than are typically discussed in Western philosophy courses. [14] Western academic philosophy has often neglected voices from non-Western cultures, and women’s voices. [15]

Philosophers sometimes import tools, knowledge, and language from other fields, such as using the formal tools of statistics in epistemology and the insights from special relativity in the philosophy of time. [16] When your project is understanding all of existence [17] in the broadest and most fundamental way, you need all the help you can get.

3. The Point(s) of Philosophy

Academic philosophy doesn’t present a body of consensus knowledge the way chemistry and physics do. [18] Do philosophical questions have correct answers? Does philosophical progress exist? Does philosophy get closer to the truth over time? [19] These are all matters of philosophical debate. [20] And philosophical debates are rarely resolved with certainty.

So what’s the point? Here are some answers: [21]

To discover truth, wherever and whatever it is. [22]
To learn how to better live our lives. [23]
To understand our own views, including their strengths and weaknesses.
To examine our own lives and be more conscious of our choices and their implications.
To learn how to better think and reason. Recall: The main method of philosophy is to present and examine arguments. [24]

And arguably, all of us are already naturally interested in at least some philosophical questions. Many people find that philosophy is a lot of fun. And it’s difficult to dispute that it is very important to find the answers to philosophical questions, if the answers exist. It’s important to know, for instance, that slavery is wrong and whether scientific consensus is generally trustworthy. So as long as it’s at least possible to find the answers to these questions, we should try.

Also, there are strong correlations between studying philosophy and high achievement in other academic areas, such as GRE scores and professional-school admission. [25]

4. Conclusion

We’ve contrasted philosophy with other fields. We’ve looked at the branches of philosophy. And we’ve looked at the purposes or benefits of philosophy. But what is philosophy, really? Given everything we’ve said so far, we can provide at least a partial definition of ‘philosophy’ as follows:

A largely (but not exclusively) non-empirical inquiry that attempts to identify and answer fundamental questions about the world, including about what’s valuable and disvaluable.

Is this a good definition? That’s a philosophical question too.

Acknowledgments

This entry has benefited enormously from the comments and suggestions of Shane Gronholz, Chelsea Haramia, Dan Lowe, and Nathan Nobis.

[1] Berkeley 2003 [1710]: 5; Blackburn 1999: 1.

[2] Some of the oldest formal philosophy writing we have is attributed to a group of ancient Greek philosophers called the ‘Pre-Socratics,’ because they wrote before Socrates and Plato did (cf. Curd 2019). The earliest Upanishads may go back even further (Olivelle 1998: 4 ff.).

[3] This is similar to Encyclopaedia Britannica’s (n.d.) definition: “the rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality as a whole or of fundamental dimensions of human existence and experience.”

[4] See e.g., Berryman 2020 on ancient atomism.

[5] Metcalf 2018.

[6] Most philosophers believe that the sciences provide knowledge relevant to traditional philosophical issues. That is, most philosophers endorse the meta-philosophy of ‘naturalism,’ according to which philosophy should be informed by the natural sciences. The usual justification for naturalism is based on the track-record of the natural sciences, including their tending toward consensus. See Bourget and Chalmers 2014: 476; Metcalf 2018; and Papineau 2019. For examples of the relevance of science to traditional philosophical issues, see Ingram and Tallent (2019: § 8); Wilce 2019; and Knobe and Nichols 2019. In these examples, special relativity may be relevant to philosophy of time; quantum mechanics may be relevant to philosophy of logic; and social science may be relevant to ethics.

[7] This is a version of common anthologies’ categorizations. See e.g., Blackburn 1999: vii and Rosen et al. 2015.

[8] Logicians can also study logics about obligation (McNamara 2019), about necessity and possibility (Garson 2019), and whether useful logics can contain sentences that are both true and false simultaneously (Priest et al. 2019).

[9] Van Inwagen and Sullivan 2019.

[10] Steup 2019; Metcalf 2020.

[11] Value theorists also study specific topics, such as our obligations to animals (Gruen 2019) and whether governments can be legitimate (Peter 2019). See also Haramia 2018 (the entry on applied ethics in 1000-Word Philosophy ) for an overview of applied ethics.

[12] Indeed, one area where people see many connections is with religion. So what’s the difference between philosophy and religion? This is not an easy question to answer, but most religious practice proceeds from a shared starting-point consensus body of putative knowledge, and these beliefs are almost all about God or gods, the afterlife, and how to live a pious life. In contrast, in philosophy, everything is constantly open to question, and the topics are much broader than gods and the afterlife.

[13] See e.g., McAfee 2019 and Outlaw 2019.

[14] Van Norden 2017.

[15] See e.g., Van Norden (op. cit.) and Buxton and Whiting 2020.

[16] Indeed, one popular metaphilosophical view is methodological naturalism about philosophy, according to which philosophy should use the methods of the natural sciences. Some naturalists go so far as to say that traditional philosophical methods should be replaced by scientific methods. See Metcalf 2018 and Papineau 2019 for more discussion. As for tools and knowledge from other fields, statistical and probabilistic analysis is common in many areas of philosophy (see, e.g., Weisberg 2019) and special relativity may tell us something important about the philosophy of time (Ingram and Tallant 2019).

[17] And maybe even the objects that don’t exist; see Reicher 2019.

[18] Bourget and Chalmers 2014. Arguably, there is consensus about many philosophical questions, but we don’t consider those questions in academic philosophy, at least not anymore. For example, almost everyone knows that slavery is wrong and that women should be allowed to vote if anyone is. See also Gutting 2009 for a general survey of some apparent philosophical discoveries.

[19] Cf. Chalmers 2015.

[20] See, e.g., Miller 2019.

[21] See Bierce 2008; de Montaigne 1987: 204; Russell 2010: 20 for some other statements about the nature or purpose of philosophy.

[22] Bierce 2008.

[23] De Montaigne 1987: 204.

[24] See e.g., Groarke 2019.

[25] Daily Nous n.d. However, we do not yet know what proportion of this is a ‘selection effect’—people who are already smart major in philosophy—and how much of this is a ‘treatment effect,’ i.e., majoring in philosophy actually makes you smarter.

Berkeley, George. 2003 [1710]. A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge . Mineola, NY: Dover Philosophical Classics.

Berryman, Sylvia. 2019. “Ancient Atomism.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2019 Edition.

Bierce, Ambrose. 2008. “The Devil’s Dictionary.” In Project Gutenberg (ed.), Project Gutenberg.

Blackburn, Simon. 1999. Think: A Compelling Introduction to Philosophy . Oxford, UK and New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bourget, David and David J. Chalmers. 2014. “What Do Philosophers Believe?” Philosophical Studies 170(3): 465-500.

Buxton, Rebecca and Lisa Whiting. 2020. The Philosopher Queens: The Lives and Legacies of Philosophy’s Unsung Women. London, UK: Unbound Publishers.

Chalmers, David J. 2015. “Why Isn’t There More Progress in Philosophy?” Philosophy 90(1): 3-31.

Curd, Patricia. 2019. “Presocratic Philosophy.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Winter 2019 Edition.

Daily Nous. n.d. “Value of Philosophy.”

De Montaigne, Michel. 1987. Complete Essays . Tr. M. A. Screech. London, UK: Penguin Books.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. N.d. “Philosophy.” In The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (eds.), Encyclopaedia Britannica , Online Edition.

Garson, James. 2019. “Modal Logic.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Winter 2019 Edition.

Groarke, Leo. 2019. “Informal Logic.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2019 Edition.

Gruen, Lori. 2019. “The Moral Status of Animals.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Winter 2019 Edition.

Gutting, Gary. 2009. What Philosophers Know: Case Studies in Recent Analytic Philosophy . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Ingram, David and Jonathan Tallant. 2019. “Presentism.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Winter 2019 Edition.

Knobe, Joshua and Shaun Nichols. 2019. “Experimental Philosophy.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2019 Edition.

Markosian, Ned. 2019. “Time.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Winter 2019 Edition.

McAfee, Noëlle. 2019. “Feminist Philosophy.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2019 Edition.

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Olivelle, Patrick (tr. and ed.). 1998. The Early Upaniṣads: Annotated Text and Translation . New York, NY and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

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Papineau, David. 2019. “Naturalism.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Winter 2019 Edition.

Peter, Fabienne. 2019. “Political Legitimacy.” In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Winter 2019 Edition.

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Tom Metcalf is an associate professor at Spring Hill College in Mobile, AL. He received his PhD in philosophy from the University of Colorado, Boulder. He specializes in ethics, metaethics, epistemology, and the philosophy of religion. Tom has two cats whose names are Hesperus and Phosphorus. shc.academia.edu/ThomasMetcalf

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